Global Warning for Global Warming

Today climate change is a very common discussion amongst various cross sections of people right from school students to scientists including farmers. People are worried for the untimely rain, unexpected vanishing of winter and unbelievable temperature during summer and unimaginable rushing of sea by crossing the coastal specific area. Rain, winter, temperature and sea show certain magnitude of irregularity and severity. That is the reason why human beings on earth are very serious. Of these, the spectacular pain has been realized because of warming.

Now some questions crop up in the mind. Let us see what is temperature, heat and warming. Temperature is defined as the degree of hotness or the condition determining interchange of heat between bodies. But heat is a form of energy or that which excites the sensation of warmth especially in a high degree. Whereas warm is having moderate heat or imparting heat or sensation of heat. Earth is a beautiful planet because it supports life. Interestingly enough, earth has been resulted from warming and then cooling condition. Gradually because of availability of air and water various life forms have been involved gradually. But after successful and fruitful evolution of floral and faunal diversity, again some changes with respect to warming are seen.

By the end of this century, it is believed that the average global temperature will be higher than ever in the past thousand years. By the end of next century, this trend could make the earth 30 to 40 C hotter taking the world’s climate back to what it was two to three million years ago. Keeping this aspect in mind, certain questions arise.

1. Why is warming state happening and what will be the effect of this warming on animals including human beings?

2. Why should people be worried about the earth getting bit hotter?

3. Is it today’s phenomenon or it was there earlier?

4. Can it be solved and if yes what are the ways?

5. Who are the creators of this increased warming?

Scientists from different counties pondered these questions during the deliberation of the Inter-Governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). After serious deliberation, discussion and debate, the scientists reached the conclusion that the increase in CO2 is the causative factor of global warming which may threaten life on earth. Further, the reason of increased amount of CO2 is the loss of trees or deforestation. Due to urbanization and industrialization concrete structures, roads and buildings were constructed and the natural forest grown areas were destroyed. Forests are the lungs of the earth. When forests are lost by various anthropogenic activities the amount of CO2 got increased. This CO2 trapped solar radiation by which the atmospheric temperature got increased.

Well, this warming practically is not at all today’s phenomenon. Since inception of the earth warming was existing for which biodiversity has been possible. But recently, this warming has been increased which has brought several changes in the climate. It is believed that 30-40 C increase in temperature could lead to alarming and unpredictable changes in established and systematic weather pattern that rainfall and wind patterns could change dramatically and seriously effect agriculture. Now the question is what is the solution to this pollution?

However, following steps may be taken to reduce this increased temperature.

1. Planting of trees in our own residential areas, schools, colleges, universities, offices and working places should be undertaken.

2. Nature grown forest areas should not be disturbed or destroyed.

3. In barren lands afforestation process should be accelerated.

4. Serious punishment should be executed in case of cutting down of trees or deforestation without prior permission of the competent and concerned authorities.

5. Single individual should not construct several houses or more than one house with concrete structures and wooden doors and windows.

6. People should not use a good number of wooden beds, furniture’s etc. which needs to be discouraged.

7. Festivals like car festival should not be observed by destroying several logs of trees each year. There must be amendment in temple rules as regards the construction of chariots.

8. Newsprint part needs to be restricted, i.e., several types of newspapers or printing papers should be minimized.

9. People should prefer to use or read newspapers from common centres or offices or libraries. Individual purchase of newspaper copies should be restricted.

10. Writing paper should be properly used and both sides of paper must be utilized as far as practicable.

11. Various household articles, dresses, utensils, vehicles (more than one or two) should be highly discouraged. The household articles retain the heat from the environment.

12. Various types of chemicals, chemical products like mosquito repellents, house cleaners, toilet cleaners, detergents, hanky perfumes, naphthalene balls, pesticides etc. should be avoided as far as possible.

13. Organic or natural food must be taken regularly instead of junk food or fast food or convenience food or fast food or convenience food or synthetic food.

14. Human beings should practice exercise and walking instead of using motor bikes for short or walk able distance. People working in the office should use office vehicle in common way or in shared manner to reduce fuel consumption and automobile exhausts.

15. Rampant industrialization, urbanization and regular massive mining activities should be restricted.

16. Power or electricity consumption should be properly taken care of everywhere preferably in offices. Light may not be used for specific hours either everyday of every week or even a month.

17. Crackers, Candles and Diyas should completely be avoided,

Global warming has been a global phenomenon not a local problem. Therefore, this is a serious matter of concern for which it is suggested to be careful and cautious. Unless proper thoughtful measures are taken, we will definitely approach towards mass extinction. We should not forget that dignity is identity. When nature maintains its dignity, regularity and sincerity, we should not violate natural principle and denature the nature. So that nature can nurture us for a better future without torture.

Forests and Energy

About 27% of the earth’s surface or 36% of the earth’s land surface are covered with forest. Forests account for 75% of the gross primary productivity of the Earth’s biosphere, and contain 80% of the Earth’s plant biomass. The total forest land includes closed canopy forests i.e. dense forests, open canopy forests i.e. less dense forests and deforested areas.

Forest is an important natural resource. It is most important natural habitat for wild life. It is also utilized by farmers for commercial and recreational purposes. Many herbivores find shelter and carnivores their prey in the forest. Besides this, forest plays most important role from commercial point of view. Forest based cottage industries, such as bee-keeping, bamboo mat and basket making provide small-scale industry to the tribal people. Sal is a most important source for timber industries. It also provides raw materials for pulp and plywood industry.

Green plants of the forest are food producing organisms and are primary producers of the “food chain”. These foods are stored in the form of fruits, nuts, seeds, nectar and wood. Therefore, forest serves as an energy reservoir, trapping energy from sunlight and storing it in the form of a biochemical product.

Forests provide a diversity of ecosystem services including converting carbon dioxide into oxygen and biomass, acting as a carbon sink, aiding in regulating climate, purifying water, mitigating natural hazards such as floods, and serving as a genetic reserve. Forests also serve as a source of lumber and as recreational areas. So removal of plants and trees would disturb the composition of natural air. An acre of forest absorbs four tonnes of carbonic acid gas and recycles eight tonnes of oxygen into environment.

The reverence of forest conservation and preservation has been honoured with due regards in our old scriptures of all religions the Vedas, Puranas and the Upanisads and the Ramayana and Mahabharata. But, ironically this is dismally a matter of pity that in today’s world this asset is going to be driven to the verge of extinction globally, so to say heading towards death-knell. The axe and the gun had over the years been the only tools in the hands of mad civilized man to eke out living not only for his need but more so for greed. Still sad is the careless handling of cigarette bit which spells the doom of forestry business and destroy the wildlife housing in and around the forest. The present day’s scenario, therefore, evokes us all to be forestry conscious to safeguard Mother Earth.

History has recorded that our religions, customs, traditions are interrelated in a kaleidoscopic fashion in a variety of ways, with the growth in population uncompromising with globe’s latitudes and longitudes has further added fuel to fire in depleting tree cover coupled with the development activities, particularly in the picturesque resorts, has undercut the very basis. Trees are among primitive man’s first deities. Not the last though, for even today in India, the Banana and peepal trees are worshipped. The International Day of Forests or World Forestry Day was established on the 21st day of March, by resolution of the United Nations General Assembly on November 28, 2012. Each year, various events celebrate and raise awareness of the importance of all types of forests, and trees outside forests, for the benefit of current and future generations. Countries are encouraged to undertake efforts to organize local, national, and international activities involving forests and trees, such as tree planting campaigns, on International Day of Forests. Theme for World Forestry Day 2017 is “Forests & Energy”. Alternative forms of energy have gained popularity as a way to address these concerns. For instance, bioenergy derived from biological materials such as wood, agricultural crops and wastes, or dung is used. If sustainably managed, bioenergy derived from plants can be considered renewable because new trees or other plants can replace those that have been converted to energy. Its net benefit in terms of climate change mitigation depends on the balance between carbon dioxide (CO2) captured during plant growth and CO2 released when producing, processing, transporting and burning the fuel.

Increasingly, agricultural crops such as oil palm, sugar cane, maize, rapeseed, soyabeans and wheat, are being used to produce liquid biofuels, mainly to power vehicles.

According to rules of Forest Department, 10 trees should be planted in exchange of cutting down one tree. Though, in last two decades only 1% trees have been planted. If the nation has to survive, the philosophy of life must be understood not only in words, ideas or achievements but in terms which would replant us firmly on the earth and under shady tree. Our forests, unlike any other natural wealth are renewable. Their protection and preservation is as important as our life is to us. These have been victimized by human threat. Let us, therefore, embrace this precious gift bestowed upon us by the ancestors and add to it by planting more and more trees.

Concept of Human Rights

In its original sense, the term, right implied purity, virtue and innocence. It had been used to denote the benefit received or deserved. However, it did not carry the idea that one had these benefits as a matter of right.

In the eighteenth century, however, such adjectives as ‘natural’, ‘inherent’, ‘inalienable’, ‘imprescriptibly’ had usually been used before the term the ‘Right of Man’ to signify that the existence of these rights was independent of positive law. The contemporary use of the term ‘Human Rights’ as it finds its mention in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights of 1948, is of course, a revival of the eighteenth century concept of the ‘Rights of Man’1. It is clearly evident from Article 1 of the Declaration which runs as:

“All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood”.

This is the basic philosophical postulate upon which the Declaration is based. It clearly implies that the right to liberty and equality are the birth right of every human being which cannot be alienated. The basic assumptions is that the human beings are possessed with rational and moral capabilities which differentiate them from other creatures on earth and therefore, they are entitled to certain rights and freedoms which other creatures do not have. Further, Article 3 of the declaration provides that the right to life, the right to liberty and the right to security of persons are basic rights upon which the enjoyment of all other rights is dependent. The same approach has been adopted in India. Section 2 (d) of the Protection of Human Rights Act, 1993 defines human rights as “the rights relating to life, liberty, equality and dignity of the individuals guaranteed by the Constitution or embodied in the International Covenants and enforceable by courts in India.” However, there are two main approaches to explain the nature and meanings of human rights. There are in particular philosophical or theoretical Approach and Pragmatic Approach. The philosophical approach can be described with the help of five theories and these are as follows:

(a) The Legal Right Theory;

(b) The Natural Right  Theory;

(c) The Social welfare Theory of Rights;

(d) The Historical Theory of Right, and

(e) The Idealistic Theory of Rights.

(a)  The Legal Right Theory:

This theory can be upheld to the extent that the recognition of a right by State is necessary for its enforcement. If a State does not recognize a right it cannot be enforced, however potential it may be. Even in democratic societies, where people will rein supreme recognition of rights by State is essential for their enforcement against the state.

(b)  The Natural Right Theory:

In the contemporary sense of the term, human rights has been defined by Elaine Pagels as “the idea that the individual has rights; claims upon society, or against  society; that these rights, which society must recognize, on which it is obliged to act, are intrinsic to human beings.” What is postulated here is not only that there are human rights but also that these have universal application. It is opposed to the idea that the human rights are conferred upon the individual members by the society in which they live. It postulates that the human rights are claimed upon or against the society and that these rights exist independent of and even prior to the formation of society. Thus the natural rights theory, in its ultimate analysis, rests upon the intrinsic nature of man. This natural rights explanation of the human rights has following three characteristic features:

1. Human Rights are said to be recognized.

2. Human Rights are said to be inalienable, natural and inherent.

3. All human beings are said to be essentially equal.

(c)    The Social Welfare Theory of Right:

The social Welfare Theory is also known as the Social Expediency Theory. The advocates of this theory believe that law, custom and natural rights, all are conditioned by social expediency. For instance right to freedom of speech is not absolute but rather regulated in accordance with the requirements of social expediency. Roscoe Pound and Prof. Chaffe have supported this theory.

The utilitarian like Bentham and Mill have also supported this theory. They have advocated for the ‘greatest happiness of the greatest number’ as a principle on the basis of which all the social measures should be judged. Utility can be determined by means of reason and experience.

(d)  The Historical Theory of Rights:

The historical theory maintains that the rights are the creation of historical process. A long-standing custom in the course of time concretize in the specific or of right. In the same spirit many of the natural rights have the sanction of the longest and the least broken custom, for example, the rights of Englishmen, which have found mention in the Magna Carta and the petition of Right, these, in fact, have been enjoyed from very early days. This justifies the comment of Ritchie that those rights which people think they ought to have are just and those rights which they have been accustomed to have or which they have a tradition (Whether true or false) of having once possessed. Custom is primitive law.

(e)   The Idealistic Theory of Rights:

The Idealistic Theory of Rights is also known as personality Theory of Rights. This theory insists on the inner development of man, on the development of his full potentiality. Hence, it treats right of personality as a supreme and absolute right. All other rights, such as, right to life, right to liberty or right to property are derived from this one fundamental right. These various rights are related to the right of personality. It may be illustrated thus; I have a right to life only to the extent to which it is essential for the development of my full potentiality. In this sense society may not permit me to take away my life or to commit suicide. The chief merit of this theory is that it insists upon right of personality as the only absolute rights and all others rights are derived from it and are conditioned by it.

Pragmatic Approach: Besides philosophical and theoretical approach, another way of looking at the meaning and nature of human rights is pragmatism. Every right whether it has been perceived as inalienable or otherwise can have validity and effectiveness only through some process or institution. Thus it cannot be defined without reference to some institutional structure. As a room cannot be defined without reference to the walls, so human rights cannot be defined without reference to institutional settings.

In the Indian context, for instance, fundamental rights are incorporated in Part III of the Constitution of India. Although the term fundamental right has nowhere been defined in the Indian Constitution, but on careful examination of these several fundamental rights one would conclude that these rights constitute restrictions on the power of state and also require the state to adhere to the guidelines pronounced in the matter, by the Supreme Court of India. Viewed as such, the nature and meaning of ‘human rights and fundamental freedom’, as referred to in the charter of the United Nations should be ascertained with reference to the catalogue of human rights. This may be divided into three broad categories:

(a)                             Global, such as, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant of civil and Political Rights, the International Covenant on the Elimination of all forms of Racial Discrimination against women, the convention on the Rights of Child and such other covenants and declarations.

(b)                             Regional, such as the European Convention on Human Rights and Fundamental Freedom, the European Social Charter, the American Declaration of the Rights and Duties of Man, the American Convention of Human Rights, and the African Charter on Human and People’s Rights. These human rights instruments have been developed under regional forums, such as, the Council of Europe, the Organization of American State and the Organization of African Unity.

(c)                             Subsidiary treaties, which deals with only one human right or very small number of human rights impose more specific and detailed obligation upon the state parties. For instance, the Conventions Relating to the Status of Refugees and the Status of Stateless Persons contain detailed provisions for the specific application of ‘right of asylum’ proclaimed under Article 14 of the Universal of Human Rights Declaration.

Interdependence of Three Categories of Human Rights:

At one stage, it was argued that new economic, social and cultural rights should have precedence over the old civil and political rights, first, because new rights are more important than the old one and secondly, new rights, economic, social and culture, represent the basic needs of the human being, therefore, they must be satisfied first. In the same way, it is also argued that the human right of third generation is even more important. If these rights are not implemented immediately, the earth planet will soon become uninhabitable. However, in the present day world, all human rights are considered tone interdependent. Various international institutions have emphasized upon the interdependence, complementarily and indivisibility of human rights.

For instance, the Teheran International Conference on Human Rights stated in its Declaration that since “human rights and fundamental freedom are indivisible, the full realization of civil and political rights without the enjoyment of economic, social and cultural rights, is impossible. The achievements of lasting progress in the implementation of human rights are dependent on sound and effective national international policies of economic development”.

Similarly, General Assembly in its resolution asserted that:

(a)                             All human rights and fundamental freedoms are indivisible and interdependent; equal attention and urgent consideration should be given to the implementation, promotion and protection of civil and political and economic, social and cultural rights;

(b)                             Consequently human rights questions should be examined globally taking into account both the overall context of the various societies in which they present themselves, as well as the need for the promotion of the full dignity of the human person and the development and well-being of the society.

(c)                              Regarding the implementation and importance of third generation of human rights. Louis B.Sohn has advocated that the implementation of these new rights may not, like the economic, social and cultural rights, be achieved immediately still they set new goals for us that can be accomplished progressively step by step by making strenuous efforts:

“They are vast and overwhelming, but so is our problem. The damage to humanity that might be inflicted by a nuclear war or an environmental catastrophe is almost beyond comprehension; we need to grasp any tool that is available to stem an engulfing tide that is of horrifying proportions”.

The Cultural History of the Tribals of the Koraput Region

Introduction:

The culture of any community is closely associated and assimilated with its history since time immemorial. Further the existence of culture is the base of history. Therefore, the craze to know the way of life of any community requires study and analysis of cultural history of that tribe deeply. If one thinks of cultural history of primitive tribes one must turn towards South Odisha, the hub of tribals. So, this Koraput region, the domain of tribals has become centre of study and research.

Although the tribal population in Odisha has around 25%; their contribution in the development process of the state is outstanding. Their tradition and culture is broad and uncommon. And the cultural history of tribals of this undivided Koraput have special importance all over India. The tribal population consists of 53.74% in the undivided Koraput (now divided into 4 districts Koraput, Rayagada, Nawarangpur and Malkangiri) as per 2001 census operation. The anthropologist study gives an account that there are 62 types of tribes in Odisha. They all live in the above district although their number is so small. As far as the population of a tribe is concerned the Bhumia, Bhatra, Gond, Koya, Paraja, Kondh constitute above one lakh each, while other 26 tribes population is around 1000.

The Bonda and Didayi are considered as rare tribes because of their greatness and typicality of culture. Their domain and sphere of activity is confined to the dense forests of Eastern Ghats and on the mountainous river. This aboriginal tribe is divided into three communities’ viz. Munda. (Austro-Asiatic), Dravidian and Indo - Asian. They have their culture of own which is linked to their ambiance and language. Literarily the definition of their culture is so broad that we appreciate and accept every aspect of their life style which is associated with culture. Let us have a glance at their culture from different perspective such as social and religious milieu, village system, folk literature, dance and song, fairs and festivals, way of life and folk art.

Socio-cultural Life of the Tribal:

Normally the primitive tribes express the cultural identity through their custom, tradition, festivals, dress and ornaments. A certain name is coined especially for the identity of a tribe e.g. the Bonda, the Koya, the Didayi, the Paraja, the Kondh, the Saura etc. One can have a clear view from this name. Every tribe has a certain place of origin and its spreading they have their own oral and written language for interaction of each other. The matrimonial alliance of a tribe is arranged in its own community as they oppose intercommunity marriage. Each tribe has its own social bond, administration, tradition and judicial system. All these play a key role in maintaining law, youth dormitory, worship and enchanting, economic policy, collection of food, hunting, shifting agriculture, and handicraft and so on for their lively subsistence. Indeed all these things are a case study of cultural history of tribes for the new generation of writer.

Salient Features of Tribal Socio-Cultural Life:

1. They live in relative isolation usually in hills and forests in interior area.

2. Their social identity is defined and redefined from time to time.

3. They constitute simple societies which are socio-culturally homogeneous.

4. They have their written and oral language or dialect for communication.

 5. A particular tribal community is endogamous and is divided into a number of exogamous divisions.

6. They have low access to education and health care services.

7. They possess their own socio-cultural history which may be shallow and un-written.

8. They have their rich cultural tradition and heritage although their social organization is simple.

OTHER CULTURAL MILIEU

A.   Traditional Village Council :

The village council is considered to be the cultural centre of tribal village. It comprises various posts and their duties to perform. The head of the village council is the head of the village. The head of a village is normally selected as per seniority and talent. His commitment, love and affection towards villagers are also taken into consideration for selection as head. Almost all the tribe calls the head as “NAIKO”. Assistance is chosen to help the head is called as “CHALLAN”. The duty of convening a meeting is rested on the shoulder of “BARIK”. The priest of the village is regarded as “DEHURI”. Apart from that the posts of the council of village of all the tribe is different from each other. For example the head of the Koya village is “WARDE”, the Paraja’s the “MUDULI”, and the Sauras’s the “GOMANGO” and so on. The religious head of the Kondh community is the “JANI” who is assisted by “BIS-MAJHI” during the time of meeting. These are the aspects which are the main source of cultural wave of tribes that provide a lot of account regarding their culture.

B.    Youth Dormitories :

The youth dormitories (Dhangda, Dhangdi Basa) play a major role for keeping the tribal culture and tradition afloat. And most of the tribe has such institution for unmarried youths. The boys and the girls spend nights there in separate room in the dormitories. An open space is there opposite to the dormitory which is meant for practising dance. It would not be wrong to say it as school for improvement of dance. This dormitory has another importance particularly choosing of life partner by the youth. It is indeed a democratic institution for promotion and carrying culture of tribes and we have to recognize the role of dormitory in this regard is uncommon.

C.   Ceremony of Tribals :

Ceremonies are inseparable part of the way of life of tribals. There are two types of ceremony so far as the observation at family level and community level is concerned. The family level ceremonies mainly include Newly Born Babies, Marriage and Death. These ceremonies have specific custom and convention, for instance the Naming Ceremony of the newly born baby which is taken place on 21st day after birth. There is also provision of prayer and worship to the forefather for blessings. This ceremony also includes the drawing of “Muruja’ and “Jhoti” in tantric design. Similarly during the time of death rites there is also the rule of drawing tantric design and offering of non-steam rice, wine, cocks etc. for pleasing the spirits of the deads. These ceremonies are conducted in the presence and guidance of Jani, Sisa and Gurumai.

D.   Culture Associated with Religion :

All tribes are the worshipper of nature as they felt the presence of divinity in nature. Indeed, this is important from religious ground. They give more emphasis on three elements of nature. They worship the soil as mother earth, sun as religious god and water as the life giver. But the head decides the observation of different festivals on considering the religious culture. So it is noticed that there is some uniformity and diversity of observing festivals. The aim and objective of religious objects are as follow: (a) prayer for blessing (b) system of improved bread earning (c) worshipping and remembering of forefathers (d) welfare of world (e) recreation (f) environment protection and (g) integration among communities.

The religious practices go on in tribal culture all over the year, e.g. construction of home, shifting cultivation, sowing of seeds, setting of wooden pole in the ground, hunting and worshipping. These practices are the main perspectives that keep alive the religious culture till now.

E.    Song, Dance and Festivals :

Other aspects that associate with tribal culture are folk song, folk dance, fairs and festivals which cannot be ignored or side- tracked. Although these are source of pomp and gaiety, still these are collectively reflecting tribal culture. They prefer to perform song and dance in group rather than pairs or single. They play traditional tribal musical instruments such as drum, horn, tamak, Dungdunga etc. The expression of the parts of the body like eye, head, waist and hand attract others and especially at the time of dance which is parallel to the tune of musical instruments. Usually these types of song and dance are organized at the time of fair and festivals. The main festivals include Chaiti Parab, Pus Parab, Sim (bean) Parab, Aam (mango) Parab, Bhairabi Jatra and marriage ceremony. They put on their traditional dresses and ornaments well on these occasions so as to sing and dance in groups. The Pus Parab and Chaiti Parab of almost all tribes of Koraput region is recognized as main festivals and Dhemsa, the popular dance is regarded as the best in the country. Their important festivals and dance are discussed below:

1.    Chaiti Parab:

The whole month of Chaitra is celebrated as a holiday by the tribals of this region. The month is spent in feasting, nightlong dancing and singing and in expeditions in to the forests together. Mohwa blossom during which it is said, free love is the rule among the unmarried. Men and boys go into the forest for hunting. With depletion of forest and restrictions imposed on it, the scope of hunting has declined in course of time.

2.    Pus Parab:

Pus Parab is observed in the month of Pausha in which men, women and children participate. After the rituals and sacrifices are made in front of a heap of wood is lit and people sing and dance encircling the fire. The Bonda, Koya, Paraja, Didayi, Bhatra, Matia etc. observe this festival with much pomp and ceremony.

3.    Dhemsa Dance:

A popular dance form like Dhemsa which is normally performed in every village of Koraput is really fascinating. This is such a group dance which consists both men and women of all ages. They perform the group dance knitting fingers of one another and with the tunes of the instrument. Although all tribes perform the Dhemsa only the Koya’s style and expression is eye-catching. The Koya male put on the horns of the bison during the dance. The beautiful song, dance, musical instruments associated with these performances by the tribals and their colourful costumes and ornaments are the greatest attractions for the viewers.

4.    Art and Crafts:

The artistic skill of the tribal people is not only manifested in their dance and music, but also in their dress and ornaments, wall paintings, wood carving and toy making etc. But through art and craft their self-image and aesthetic sensibility are visualized. The Sauras, the Koyas, the Kondhas decorate their houses with motifs of flowers, birds, and geometrical designs. The Saura paintings are intimately related to religious beliefs and drawn in order to appease demigods and spirits. The wood carving of Kondhas, metal work by Bathudis is really things of attraction to outsiders.

The Bonda and Gadaba have their own looms by which they weave cloth for their own use. The Bonda women though are considered to be very primitive, look majestic when they wear head bands of grass, necklace of coloured beads and girdles made of brass on their bodies. All these are expressions of their artistic quality and aesthetic sense.

Conclusion :

Literally, the tribal culture is so much liberal and simple. A deep observation, study and analysis regarding tribal culture will clarify our understanding. On account of these above reasons the tribals of these parts are considered as simple, truthful and freedom-oriented. Although modernization and the process of globalization has already entered into the hills of Koraput region and changing their life style; yet their costumes, tradition associated with cultural history will remain evergreen in the world. Now it is the need of the hour to study and highlight the rich culture of these South Odishan tribals of Koraput region, though they are unaware of their contribution for widening and enriching the scope of global culture. In the words of Verrier Elwin, the notable scholar of tribal studies in India “Let us teach them that their (tribal’s) own culture, their own arts are the precious things that we respect and need. When they feel that they can make a contribution to their country, they will feel part of it. It is therefore, an important aspect of their integration”.

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The Grace

Oh mighty! My Lord Jagannath!

I am that meek for ages,

forever whom you seek.

I am that downtrodden

trampled and weak

When strong and stout

secure the field,

you, you alone

are my shield.

Far above you are

Oh Mighty!  I am meek,

Eternity sponsors

our hide and seek.

Oh Lord!

how strange it is

You fall sick!

What I understand

that is your trick.

"Seek in me

and be concerned for me"

is the message.

In a pretext you leave the palace

to grant the devotees utmost solace

With you in the chariot

within your tight embrace,

might in the meek

is awakened

and that is the grace.

The Outstanding Contributions of Odisha towards Buddhist Culture

The outstanding contributions of Odisha towards the Buddhist culture is uncountable. In past Buddhism occupied a great position in religious history of Odisha. Lord Buddha is rightly said the light of Asia. The great Vaishnav poet Jayadev of Odisha of twelfth century A.D. described Buddha as an incarnation of Lord Vishnu. Buddhism had influenced the social, cultural and political life of Kalinga. The relation of Odisha with Buddhism is very ancient. The early Buddhist text Nikaya and Jatak mention the names of two merchants of Utkal: Tapassu and Bhallika who become the first devotees of Lord Buddha. They had also received the sacred hairs of Buddha and enshrined the "Kushadhatu" at Kalinga. In this way the Buddhism entered in Odisha. During that period "Akiria bad" was established in Odisha and the followers of this ideology were strongly protesting the Buddhism in Odisha. When Buddha defeated the religious faiths of Akariabzad, then after Buddhism became very popular in the soil of Odisha. According to Buddhist "Mahaparinirvana sutta" Kalinga was one of the kingdoms to obtain the tooth-relic of Buddha after his Cremation at Kusinara. Bhikhhu Khemathera had brought the sacred tooth relic of Buddha to Kalinga. This tooth relic was enshrined and worshipped at Dantapure, the capital of Kalinga. The text Dathvamsa of Ceylon states that Danta Kumar the Pince of Ujjain had married Hemamala the daughter of Guha Siva, the King of Kalinga who ruled in the third century A.D. Princess Hemamala carried the tooth relic in her well laid hair to Ceylon accompanied by prince Danta kumar.

The Historic Kalinga war of 261 B.C which was fought on the bank of river Daya near Bhubaneswar is one of the memorable event in Buddhism. After Kaling war emperor Ashok had extended his heartily support for the spread of Buddhism in Kalinga. Ashokan rock edicts at Dhauli and Jaugada have helped increase the Buddhist culture in Odisha very rapidly. During the time of great emperor Ashok, Buddhism became very popular in Odisha. Buddhism was divided into nineteen groups at the time of Ashok. Among them Jheravada, Mahasanghika, and Sarvastivada were very popular among common people. During the time of Ashok, Buddhist monks of above groups had come to Kalinga and stayed here. Ashok built a monastery for the Theravadin monk Tissa, who was his younger brother living in Bhojakagiri near Delanga in Kalinga. Acharya Mahadeva a great scholar of Mahasanghika had visited Kalinga and established his association here. Bhikhhu Dhitik Kumar and his disciple Kalanka had spread the culture of sarvastivada in Kalinga. Acharya Posadha had played vital role for growth of sarvastivada Buddhist culture in Kalinga. The section saravastivada of Buddhism became very popular during that period. Some Buddhist remains are still found in Bhubaneswar. According to well-known historian K.C. Panigrahi the Sivalinga of Bhaskareswar temple is originally an Ashokan Pillar but another famous scholar N.K.Sahu rejects the opinion of K.C. Panigrahi with strong argument.

After the decline of Maurya empire the downfall of Buddhism started in Kalinga . Kharavel in 1st century B.C. offered royal patronage for growth of Jainism in Kalinga. Buddhism was divided into two groups named Hinayan and Mahayan. From early 1st century A.D to seventh century A.D. both Hinayana and Mahayan schools were prevalent in Odisha. Hiuen-T Sang, the Chinese traveler stated about the controversy of Hinayan and Mahayan in odro in his account. Mahayan which took its origin in 1st/2nd century A.D. in Kalinga by Acharya Nagarijuna and king Kaniska. Many eminent Buddhist Acharyas, teachers, scholars and saints visited Odisha during this period and they made Mahayan Buddhist culture popular in Odisha.

By sixth century A.D. a number of Buddhist centres and academies were developed. Among, the Puspagiri, Suravagiri, and Parimalagiri were famous at national level. In the Birupa- Chitrotpala valley archaeological remains of great Buddhist monasteries are found at Ratnagiri, Lalitagiri and Udayagiri.

The great Buddhist Vihar Puspagiri which Hiuen-T sang mentioned in his account has not yet been identified properly. Lalitagiri the oldest of the three monasteries was known as Chandraditya vihar. Ratanagiri and Udayagiri monasteries were known as Ratnagiri Mahavihar and Madhavapur Mahavihar respectively. It is known from the Buddhist text "GandBruha" that there was a Buddha Vihar at Tosali in Suravagiri in third century A.D. now known as Dhauligiri. There, Acharya Sarvagami was the renowned monk who popularized Buddhist culture in Odisha. Another important Buddhist centre was Parimalagiri, identified as the present Gandhamardana hills of Balangiri district. Famous Buddhist scholar Nagarjuna was the Acharya of this holy centre. Aryadev, the disciple of Nagarjuna was the citizen of  Singhpur, the capital of Kalinga. He became the principal of Parimalgiri vihar after the death of his teacher. Buddhism started to decline in the last part of third century A.D in Odisha. In Gupta period Brahmanical culture enjoyed royal patronage. Buddhism did not able to contest with them. Dr N.K. Sahu states that Muchalindha Buddha vihar in Ganiapalli of western Odisha was  another Buddhist centre in third century A.D.

In fourth century A.D Acharya Dignaga was the teacher of Bhorasaila Buddha vihar of Delanga in Puri district. He was a famous logician and author of "Pramana Samuchaya". According to N.K Sahoo 'Delanga' derived from the name of 'Acharya Dignaga'. Acharya Dignaga was the contemporary of Mahakabi Kalidas. There was a great difference in between them. But their contribution to the Indian culture is remarkable. Vadra Palita the secretary of Kalinga king was the disciple of Dignaga and by the order of his teacher he had constructed sixteen Buddhist Vihar in Kalinga. By early seventeenth century according to Hiuen-T-sang's account, Buddhism was predominate in the Odra country. According to him there were one hundred Buddhist monasteries and ten thousand Mahayan monks.

Bhaumakar rulers have given royal patronage to Tantrik Buddhism. Sivakaradeva-I of this dynasty sent a Buddhist Manuscript named 'Gandavyuha' to the Chinese emperor To-tsong by the hand of Prangha, a well-known Buddhist Acharya who had learned about meditation at Ratnagiri Mahavihar. The Tebetan historian Taranatha and Tibetan text mentions a place called Oddiyaan (Odisha) as a great centre of Mahayan Buddhism and also the birth place of Tantrik Buddhism. Bodhisi, a tantrik monk practiced Yoga at Ratnagiri. According  to Taranatha, Rahulaa tantrik monk belonged to Odisha became the Chancellor of Nalanda University early in the 9th century A.D. Tantrika Buddhism gradually trifurcated to Bajrayana, Kalachakrayana, and Sahajayana. Indrabhuti, the king of Sambal (Sambalpur) is said to be the founder of Bajrayana. His foster son and disciple Padmasambhava carried this culture to Tibet. Acharya Pitopado of Ratnagiri is said to have introduced the culture of Kalachakrayana. Another renowned Saddhika Laxminkara the sister of king Indrabhuti is known as the founder of Sahajayana. Majorities of Siddhas among eighty-four saints in Buddhism were from Odisha. Some of the well-known siddhas of these schools were born in Odisha. They are Naropa, Sarahapada, Sabaripada, Luipada, Kambalapada, Anangavatra, Birupada, and Kannhupada.

No doubt Odisha had valuable contribution towards Buddhist culture. Buddhist past of Odisha was colourful and glorious. The contribution in the field of art and architecture of Buddhism is far-reaching. Buddhism also provided valuable contribution for the growth of Oriya language. Many scholars opined that doctrine of Sunyata of Vaishnavism, Nathaism, and Mahima culture of Odisha had come from tantrik Buddhism. It is proved Gorekhanatha the Siddha of Nathaism was at first a Buddhist Siddharth. Basic principles of Mahima dharma has come from Buddhism that Biswanath baba a prominent siddha of Mahima culture has admitted. Temple city Bhubaneswar is an ancient Buddhist centre. Bhubaneswar was the another name of Lord Buddha. An Ashokan pillar which was collected from Ashok Jhara,  is now in the State museum. The name of the place of Bhubaneswar like Mancheswar, Budheswar colony, Pandara and nearby Chandaka has similarity with Buddhist God and Goddess. A great controversy  for the birth place of Buddha continues till now. Some scholars are saying the village Kapilaswar near Lingaraj temple is the birth place of Lord Buddha. Tri-ratna of BuddhismBuddha as Dharma and Sangha are compared, Jagannath, Balabhadra and Subhadra. Scholars like Professor Wilson, James- Fergusson, and general Cunningham have referred to the Buddhist origin of Jagannath. Some scholars believe annual bathing ceremony (snana yatra) and the car festival (Rathayatra) are Buddhist practice. The term Jagannath was applied to Adi Buddha by Raja Indrabhuti of Sambal in his work "Gyanasiddhi". The people of Odisha show there devotional high respect to Lord Buddha and Buddhist culture.

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A Prayer

Oh God !

Transform me such

That I would chant

The soulful songs to you

Replete with devotion.

Oh God !

Transport me unto

Such a world

Where I would feel you

Manifesting through the void

Sans form

And expression.